240th Anniversary of the Newburgh Conspiracy

Gouvenor Morris (left) and Robert Morris (right), portrait by
Charles Willson Peale, 1783

 In the spring of 1783, the Continental army was stationed at Newburgh, NY, keeping an eye on the British who still occupied New York City.  The shooting war had ended in October of 1781 with the surrender of General Cornwallis and his army at Yorktown Heights, Virginia.  Peace treaty negotiations were proceeding slowly at Paris. A message took six weeks to cross the Atlantic, and many messages were lost at sea.  France, a participant in the negotiations, had its own agenda.  The Continental currency was rapidly declining in value.

The United States had entered a new, but still perilous period. The main cable that tied the States together, Britain as a common enemy, was gone.  Some feared America would evolve like Europe, as a collection of sovereign states, geographically bunched up against each other. The Articles of Confederation, which created the Congress, were deeply flawed from the point of view of the Centralists: James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, Robert Morris, and many others who wanted a strong central government.  The Congress was weak and ineffectual. Almost all the power resided in the States.  Although Congress had the responsibility to maintain the army, it had no power to raise money.  Congress could only ask the states to pay, but had no power to force them.  All the money and taxing power resided in the states.  Although the states had grudgingly agreed to a Confederation, they wanted a weak Congress.  Having just eliminated one far away oppressor, the States were in no mood to establish another, even though closer by.  In effect, they were 13 separate sovereign countries tied together by a weak Congress.

Robert Morris, Superintendent of Finance (forerunner to Secretary of the Treasury), stopped paying the Continental soldiers in the spring of 1782.  There were no funds to pay them, and the States would not pay.  Congress was $6 million in debt. 

In the fall of 1782, Morris begged the three holdout governors of Massachusetts, Maryland, and Rhode Island to vote for an import tax to allow Congress to raise funds.  Morris said: “Let me repeat that the hope of our Enemy is the derangement of our Finances, and let me add, that when revenue is given, that hope must cease.”[1]   This proposed import tax, however, was defeated in Congress in November, 1782.  David Howell of Rhode Island led the movement which doomed the measure to failure.

In December, senior officers and soldiers petitioned Congress to try to get funding for the army restored.  A letter, drafted by senior army officers including Major General Henry Knox, was circulated in Congress. Henry Knox, one of Washington’s most trusted Generals, was no mutineer. He lent much creditability to the petition and letter.   When later asked about Congress’ neglect of the troops and what might be the army’s reaction, Knox acknowledged the limits of the Continental Army, describing it as: “… a very sharp point which I hope in God will never be directed than against the Enemies of the liberties of America.”[2]

The letter asked for a lump sum payment and back pay instead of the lifetime payment the Congress had judged too expensive.  The letter also included a threat: “Any further experiments on the Army’s patience may have fatal effects.”[3]  Further, George Washington, himself, said at the time: “The Army is a dangerous instrument to play with.”[4] 

In February 1783, many in the army became increasingly unhappy. Hamilton urged George Washington to come out in support of the army.  Washington said at the time: “To me…it is clearly my opinion, unless Congress have powers competent to all general purposes, that the distresses we have encountered, the expences we have incurred, and the blood we have spilt in the course of an Eight years war, will avail us nothing.”[5]   Washington, who had the utmost respect for civilian authority, urged patience. 

In March 1783 an anonymous letter circulated in the army calling for a mutiny. It urged that if they were not paid, the soldiers should either leave the colonies and go west, or take up arms against the Congress and gain their rightful pay by force.  A meeting was set by the conspirators, but George Washington got wind of it.  He rescheduled the meeting for March 15th and implied that he would not attend.  The conspirators, apparently led by Major General Horatio Gates, a long time Washington detractor, took heart.  To everyone’s surprise, however, Washington did attend, and Gates ceded the floor to Washington.  Washington delivered a stirring and memorable address to his officers that day, restoring calm among the disheartened troops.

Washington’s eloquent Newburgh Address circulated widely. Shortly, afterwards, on March 19th, 1783, Congress voted to enact a pension of five years full pay for the Continental soldiers.  Washington’s masterful handling of this mutinous plot, diffused a potential disaster. He securely planted in the new and evolving American form of government, the idea of civilian control of the military and the desirability of a republican form of government.

Epilogue

Despite Washington’s persuading the soldiers to remain patient, in June, 1783, some army units did mutiny in Philadelphia and demand their pay.  Congress, which had been in-session there, was insulted.  Hoping to call attention to Congress’ ineffectual condition, the congressmen abruptly left Philadelphia and resumed their session in Princeton New Jersey.

[1] Charles Rappleye, Robert Morris: Financier of the American Revolution, Simon and Schuster, 2010, Pg 291

[2] Ibid. Pg 343

[3] American Battlefield Trust, The Newburgh Conspiracy

[4] Ibid.

[5] Ibid.

Barry Singer

West Windsor, New Jersey. June, 2023

The author, a volunteer with the Historical Society of Princeton, is a speaker about the American Revolution and conducts walking tours in historic Princeton

240th Anniversary of the Great Seal of the United States of America

2022 is the 240th anniversary of the adoption by Congress of the Great Seal of the United States.  As 1782 progressed, it became clear that the United States of America, now a free nation, needed a Great Seal.  This was not the first time it was considered.  In 1776, Benjamin Franklin proposed it and over the years there were three committees that attempted, without success, to get Congress to agree on what such a Great Seal would be.  But finally, in 1782, with peace treaty negotiations with Britain underway, the establishment of a Great Seal became more urgent.

The great seal of a nation is the primary method of authenticating a nation’s documents of high ceremonial importance.  Its use dates back thousands of years to Egypt, Phoenicia, and Babylonia.  Lesser seals were used as well, to document various transactions including land transfers.  Hopefully, there would soon be a treaty to ratify.  Congress turned the job over to Charles Thomson.

 Thomson was the Secretary of Congress and its longest serving member (1774 – 1789).  His minutes were the glue that provided continuity in a constantly changing Congress where members came and went rapidly.  He alone decided what to put into the minutes, the forerunner of the Congressional Record: (proposals, speeches, proclamations, etc.).  Any new member of Congress who wanted to know what had come before, had to go to Thomson.  He was the “go to” person. So, in spring of 1782, Congress asked Thomson to use the results of the previous committee meetings to propose a design of the Great Seal for Congressional approval.

 The History

On July 2nd, 1776, Congress passed a resolution:  That the connection between the United Colonies and Great Britain should be totally dissolved.

 On July 4th, 1776, Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence.  However, also on July 4th, it adopted a resolution that: “Dr. Franklin, Mr. J. Adams and Mr. Jefferson, be a committee to bring in a device for a seal for the United States of America”[1]

Seeking advice, the committee hired as a consultant Pierre Eugene Du Simitiere.  Living in Philadelphia, he was an artist who also knew something about heraldry, and had experience designing seals.  Later, in 1781, the College of New Jersey in Princeton granted Du Simitiere an honorary degree of Master of Arts.

 The most noteworthy items of the design of the first committee were “the Eye of Providence in a radiant triangle” and a motto “E Pluribus Unum” (Out of Many, One). “The phrase expresses exactly in words what Du Simitiere was expressing in his sketch. The design depicts the diversity of the European origins of the American people…”[2]   Adams, Franklin and Jefferson submitted their report on August 20th, 1776, but nothing was done. The report just sat there.

 On March 25th 1780, Congress created a second committee consisting of James Lovell of Massachusetts, John Morin Scott of New York, and William Churchill Houston of New Jersey.  They sought assistance from Francis Hopkinson a well-known Philadelphian. The first graduate, in 1757, of the College of Philadelphia, Hopkinson was a lawyer, musician, writer, and also had some knowledge of heraldry.  Hopkinson had the idea of adding an unfinished pyramid as a design feature, as well as including red and white stripes and blue background that he had recommended for a new flag design. Hopkinson had previously provided to Congress his flag design which they adopted on June 14, 1777.  The report of the second committee was delivered to Congress on May 10, 1780.  Some modifications were requested by Congress, but nothing was done.  This second report also just sat on the shelf, gathering dust.

Next, on January 28, 1782 Congress passed a resolution specifying the duties of the Secretary of Congress.  One of these duties was: “6th. To keep the public seal, and cause the same to be affixed to every act, ordinance or paper, which Congress shall direct”[3]. This resolution undoubtedly created some new urgency to create a seal.

 On May 4, 1782 Congress appointed a third committee to devise a great seal.  This committee consisted of Elias Boudinot from New Jersey, and Arthur Middleton and John Rutledge, both from South Carolina.  As before, this committee sought expert advice, this time from William Barton a native Philadelphian.  This third design, which Barton created drawing on the features of the previous two, was submitted to Congress on May 9, 1782.  Again, nothing happened until June 13 when Congress placed the entire project in the hands of the Secretary, Charles Thomson. 

 Charles Thomson, the longest serving person in Congress, had already been Secretary for eight years.  He would also play a central role in Princeton the following year, when Congress abruptly left Philadelphia and reconvened in Princeton New Jersey where it remained in session for 4 ½ months.

 Arriving from Ireland at New Castle Delaware as one of six orphaned children of John Thomson, Thomson overcame his challenged youth, and became a teacher, and successful Philadelphia businessman.  Active in politics, he became a strong advocate in opposing British repression of the colonies.  John Adams, referring to Thomson, was quoted as saying: “This Charles Thomson is the Sam Adams of Philadelphia, the life of the cause of liberty.”[4]

 Along with Thomson, Elias Boudinot would play a central role in 1783 when Congress held its session in Princeton, New Jersey.  Boudinot, the President of Congress in 1783, in fact was responsible for the final decision to move Congress to Princeton.  A graduate of the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University), and a trustee of the school, he knew Princeton well.  His sister, Annis Boudinot Stockton, wife of Richard Stockton III (a signer of the Declaration of Independence), was a widow then, living in her home, Morven, which served as a venue for many important meetings and social events of the summer and fall of 1783.

 With all three reports and designs at hand, Thomson went to work to create the final design.  After William Barton rewrote Thomson’s final design into heraldic terms, Thomson presented his report to Congress on June 20, 1782. Congress adopted the design that same day.  So, the final design was an amalgam of the ideas from the first two designs plus Thomson’s and Barton’s ideas translated into heraldic terms.

 The Symbolism

The Obverse

The motto – E Pluribus Unum – “out of many, one”, signifying the diversity of European countries from which people came, to create a single nation.

The bald eagle signifying independence and freedom – with an olive branch (peace) in his right talon and thirteen arrows (war) in his left talon.  Importantly, the eagle faces the olive branch, showing a preference for peace. 

 “The olive branch and arrows denote the power of peace and war which is exclusively vested in Congress” - Charles Thomson.[5]

 The Reverse[6]

Eye above the pyramid – “The Eye of Providence” surrounded by a Glory (heraldic term for rays of light)

Annuit Coeptis – “Providence Favors our Undertakings”

Unfinished pyramid of 13 steps.  The bottom step includes MDCCLXXVI, the date of the Declaration of Independence

Novus Ordo Seclorum – “new order of the ages”

The eye and the first motto allude to the many times Providence intervened in favor of the American cause.

The unfinished pyramid with the date, and the motto beneath, signify the beginning of a new American age.

 Footnotes

[1] The Eagle and the Shield: A History of the Great Seal of the United States”, Richard S. Patterson and Richardson Dougall, Office of the Historian, Bureau of Public Affairs, Department of State, 1978, p. 6

[2] Ibid., p. 24

[3] Ibid., p. 43

[4] Ibid., p. 72

[5] Ibid., pp. 84-85 for a more complete explanation of the symbolism, in Thomson’s own words in the Remarks and Explanation portion of his report to Congress.

[6] Use of this image of the Reverse of the Great Seal is thanks to permission from Florida Center for Instructional Technology at USF.  It is located on the web at https://etc.usf.edu/clippix/

Barry Singer

West Windsor, New Jersey. October, 2022

The author, a volunteer with the Historical Society of Princeton, is a speaker about the American Revolution and conducts walking tours in historic Princeton

240th Anniversary of the Purple Heart

 2022 is the 240th anniversary of the creation of the American military medal known as the Purple Heart.   Created by George Washington in 1782, the award was known then as the Badge of Military Merit.  George Washington himself presented the award to three Revolutionary War soldiers to recognize their bravery in combat.

In October 1781, the British Army under Lord Charles Cornwallis had surrendered at Yorktown Heights, Va., ending the shooting war of the American Revolution, and paving the way to peace treaty negotiations.

The new confederation of states then entered a precarious time during which many thought that the union of the new American states might not hold together.  In April of 1782, peace treaty negotiations got underway in Paris, but were dragging on.  The treaty of Paris would not be signed until September 3, 1783 at the Hotel du York in Paris. The Congress was in dire financial straits, and had no money to pay the Continental soldiers.  Robert Morris, Superintendent of Finances (forerunner of Secretary of the Treasury) had stopped the soldiers pay because of a lack of funds.  Congress had no authority to raise taxes or order the states to do so.  The soldiers grumbled. George Washington was sympathetic to their concerns, but he could do nothing to get them paid.  In June of 1783, Continental soldiers in Philadelphia mutinied, and demanded their back pay. The Congress, insulted and threatened, hastily fled Philadelphia, and resumed its session here, in Princeton, New Jersey. The small, rural town of Princeton then rose to the occasion and became the nation’s capital for the next 4 ½ months. 

It was in this environment that George Washington issued his Orders of the Day of August 7, 1782.  These orders announced:

“The General ever desirous to cherish a virtuous ambition in his soldiers, as well as to foster and encourage every species of Military Merit, directs that whenever any singularly meritorious action is performed, the author of it shall be permitted to wear on his facings over the left breast, the figure of a heart in purple cloth or silk, edged with narrow lace or binding. Not only instances of unusual gallantry, but also of extraordinary fidelity and essential service in any way shall meet with a due reward.”[1]

As far as is known, the Badge of Military Merit was awarded to only three Continental soldiers, all non-commissioned officers:  Sergeant Daniel Bissell of the 2nd Connecticut Regiment of the Continental Line, Sergeant William Brown of the 5th Connecticut Regiment of the Continental Line, and Sergeant Elijah Churchill of the 2nd Continental Dragoons, also a Connecticut Regiment.[2] 

After the Revolutionary War the Badge of Military Merit fell into disuse.  In 1932, however, to mark the bicentennial of Washington’s birth, General Douglas MacArthur led the effort to restore the use of this medal to recognize bravery in action, but also to recognize soldiers who are wounded in action.  A new design was created by Elizabeth Will, an army heraldic specialist, along with the Washington Commission of Fine arts.  This design features a bust and profile of George Washington.

 It was issued on the bicentennial of his birth, on February 22, 1932. In General Orders No. 3, the Army announced the revival of the award, and the opening of the award to wounded soldiers, by adding: “A wound which necessitates treatment by a medical officer, and which is received in action with an enemy of the United States, or as a result of an act of such enemy may…be construed as resulting from a singularly meritorious act of essential service.”[3]

In World War II over one million purple hearts were awarded.  John F. Kennedy was wounded in action in 1943, and later received the Purple Heart.  He was the only president to have that honor bestowed upon him.  “Arguably, the most famous soldier of the war to receive the purple heart was Audie L. Murphy who was awarded three Purple Hearts.”[4]  My own father-in law arrived in France in early June, 1944.  His unit, the 90th Infantry Division, known as “Tough Ombres”, came ashore in Normandy, on Utah Beach on June 7, 1944 (D-Day plus 1). For the injury he received, he was later awarded the Purple Heart.

Over time, new types of injuries and new types of combat were added to the qualifications for the award of the Purple Heart.  As examples, soldiers wounded or killed by acts of terrorism, and friendly fire would qualify.  As of 2010, there were an estimated 1.7 million awards of the Purple Heart in the U.S. Armed Forces.

Barry Singer

West Windsor, New Jersey. October, 2022

The author, a volunteer with the Historical Society of Princeton, is a speaker about the American Revolution and conducts walking tours in historic Princeton.

[1] The Institute of Heraldry, Office of the Administrative Assistant to the Secretary of the Army, Purple Heart, December 03,2013.

[2] Ibid.

[3] Fred L. Borch, The Purple Heart – The Story of America’s Oldest Military Decoration and Some Soldier Recipients, National Museum of the United States Army – for a fuller discussion of the award.

[4] Ibid.