250th Anniversary - Battles of Lexington and Concord

US Postage Stamp Issued in 1925 (100 years ago)

April 19th, 2025 marks the 250th anniversary of the start of the American Revolutionary War, at Lexington, Massachusetts, when the British fired upon the colonial militia standing on Lexington green, killing seven, and mortally wounding another. 

Two years earlier, in 1773, the British, hoping to get the colonists to accept taxation, shipped huge amounts of tea to the American colonial ports, setting the price low, but including the hated tax.  Never unloaded in any of the ports, most of the tea was returned to England.  However, when Massachusetts Governor Hutchinson refused to let the tea ships depart for England, the Sons of Liberty took other measures.  On December 16, 1773, disguised as Native Americans, they boarded the tea ships and dumped the hundreds of tea chests overboard, into Boston Harbor.  Britain responded in 1774 with the Intolerable Acts, which ended local self-government in Massachusetts and closed the port of Boston to commerce.   Boston was treated like a captured enemy city, with General Thomas Gage and his 3,000 troops, the army of occupation. In London, it was said by some advocates of reconciliation, that in the end, a small island nation could not hope to control a vast continent.  In November, Gage, realizing the poor tactical situation of his small force, asked his superiors for an additional 20,000 troops.  At that time, the total number of troops in all of Britain was 12,000.

In April 1775, hoping to prevent violence, Gage orders the seizure of weapons and gun powder stored at Concord, 20 miles northwest of Boston.  The patriots, learning of Gage’s plan, raise the alarm throughout the countryside.  “The British are coming”.   Church bells peal, guns are fired, cymbals crash.  Paul Revere and William Dawes ride through the nearby towns on the way to Lexington, warning the militias.  Two lanterns glow from the old North Church steeple.   “One if by land, two if by sea” was the prearranged signal, warning that the British would row across Boston Harbor to Cambridge instead of marching across the Neck to Charlestown, on the way to Lexington.  The Minute Men and militias pick up their weapons and head for the town greens. Captured by a British patrol on the way to Concord from Lexington, Paul Revere informs the British they have been found out.  “I know what you are after, and have alarmed the country all the way up.”[1]

Marching into Lexington around 5:00 am, the British find a militia company of more than 70 men, led by Captain John Parker, at the town green.  Seeing the British, Parker famously said: “Stand your ground.  Don’t fire unless fired upon. But if they want to have a war let it begin here”.[2]  The two forces confront each other. Someone fires a shot. It is unknown who.  The nervous British troops fire a volley into the colonial militia formation, killing seven and mortally wounding another. The militia scatter; the British march on to Concord, leaving death in their wake. 

In Concord, around 8:00 am, the British secure the north Bridge over the Concord River, and then proceed another mile to the Barrett farm, where the weapons were supposedly stored.  However, Minutemen, arriving in numbers from the nearby towns  now outnumber the British about two to one.  The British fire a volley; the Minutemen fire back, “The shot heard round the world”, killing three British soldiers and wounding nine. As more and more colonial militia arrive, the British have no choice but to begin a twelve-hour, disastrous retreat to Boston.  The British force must travel for twenty miles over a stoney, hilly terrain, dotted with trees and stone hedges which the colonial militias use for cover, while firing on them with deadly accuracy.   Afterwards, British Brigadier General Hugh Percy said: “Whoever looks upon them as an irregular mob, will find himself very much mistaken.  They have men amongst them who know very well what they are about”.[3]   General Heath, and other New England militia leaders were experienced in this type of warfare. They form a ring of skirmishers around Percy’s retreating forces and inflict heavy losses upon them, all the way back to Charlestown, where British warships can come to their aid.

The British losses were heavy. “The British lost seventy-three killed, one hundred and seventy-four wounded and twenty-six missing…. Of these eighteen were officers, ten sergeants, two drummers and two hundred and forty were rank and file.”[4] On the Continental side the losses were far fewer: “Total number killed, 49; wounded; 42, missing, 5; total loss, 96”.[5]

In twenty-four hours, from all over the northeast, some 15,000 militia arrive. They gather into a military force dwarfing Gage’s 3,000 British troops. The colonials remain at Cambridge, beginning a long siege of Boston. The American Revolutionary War has begun.

[1] David Hackett Fischer, Paul Revere’s Ride, Oxford University Press, 1994, pg 133

[2] Frank W. Coburn, The Battle of April 19, 1775, In Lexington, Concord, Lincoln, Arlington, Cambridge, Somerville and Charlestown Massachusetts, 2nd Ed., Lexington Historical Society, 1922, pg 64

[3] David Hackett Fischer, Paul Revere’s Ride, Oxford University Press, 1994, pg 254

[4] Richard Frothingham, Siege of Boston, and of the Battles of Lexington, Concord and Bunker Hill, 6th Ed., Little, Brown & Company, 1903, pg 82

[5] Frank W. Coburn, The Battle of April 19, 1775, In Lexington, Concord, Lincoln, Arlington, Cambridge, Somerville and Charlestown Massachusetts, 2nd Ed., Lexington Historical Society, 1922, pg 157

    Barry Singer

West Windsor, New Jersey

The author is a volunteer with the Historical Society of Princeton, speaking about the American Revolution and leading walking tours in historic Princeton.

Princeton and the American Revolution: The Ten Crucial Days

Washington Crossing the Delaware by Emanuel Leutze, MMA-NYC, 1851

These ten days, which unfolded in Princeton and Trenton from December 25th, 1776 to January 3rd, 1777, marked a significant turning point in the American Revolutionary War, and played a large role in securing America’s liberty. 

Much of 1776 was a dismal year for those Americans wanting freedom from British rule.  In August, a disastrous defeat in Brooklyn might have ended the revolution then and there but for the providence of wind and fog which allowed George Washington’s army to escape the most massive British naval force ever deployed to that time.  A disheartening retreat through New Jersey, with the British Army under General Cornwallis following closely, saved the army from destruction.  However, by the time the Continental Army had crossed the Delaware to safety in Pennsylvania, it had lost 90% of its men.  Spirits were low as was public opinion, so necessary to support the army.

By December 2nd, the Continental Army arrived in Princeton, on its way to Trenton and then across the Delaware River to Pennsylvania.  Princeton, a hotbed of patriotic fervor, became a ghost town.   On November 29th, John Witherspoon, President of the College of New Jersey (as Princeton University was known until 1896), closed the school sending the students scrambling to find the means to get home. Arriving in Princeton on December 7th, the British occupied Nassau Hall, using it as a barracks.  The basement, converted into a dungeon, held more than twenty patriot prisoners by year-end.  Morven was later taken as the headquarters for General Cornwallis.

By Christmas the Continental Army was in dire straits: food, ammunition and winter clothing were desperately needed.  Most of the citizen soldiers had resolved to go home, their enlistment terms set to expire December 31st.  Finally, public support for the revolution was at a low, with the value of the Continental currency sinking fast.  A victory was urgently needed.

George Washington decided to take a desperate gamble.  On the night of December 25th, his army crossed the Delaware and surprise attacked the Hessian garrison at Trenton the next morning. 

Crossing from McConkey’s Ferry in Pennsylvania, they arrived at Johnson’s Ferry in New Jersey, about ten miles North of Trenton, just as a nor’easter was gathering strength and despite extraordinary ice blockages on the river.  Traveling south, lugging cannon across Jacob’s Creek, the Continental Army marched toward Trenton in the early morning hours of December 26th.  When General Sullivan informed Washington that the gunpowder was wet and many muskets would not fire, Washington showed his determination, replying: “Then tell the General to use the bayonet and penetrate into the town; for the town must be taken and I am resolved to take it.”[1]

They attacked the Hessians from the north, emerging from the teeth of the raging nor’easter just after 8:00 am.  Delayed getting to Trenton until after daybreak, Washington worried about losing the element of surprise.  However, Providence was again on the Continentals’ side.  The storm continued to rage, and the sky remained dark.  Further, Major von Deschow, second in command of the Hessian post, canceled the usual morning patrol due to the storm. The surprise remained intact; the victory was overwhelming.  According to George Washington’s later report to Congress, nine hundred and nine prisoners, the vast majority of the three Hessian regiments, were taken. 

The British then amassed an army of more than 8,000 men at Princeton and drove southward to Trenton.  On January 2nd, 1777, entrenched in positions just south of Trenton behind the Assunpink Creek, the Continental Army held off three British attacks in the twilight hours.  These three skirmishes became known as the Second Battle of Trenton.  As they attempted to cross the Assunpink at the old stone bridge, the British suffered many casualties, inflicted by American backwoods riflemen, and the intensive American use of cannon.   General Cornwallis decided to make camp and attack the Continentals in the morning. His troops had been marching all day, the night was dark, and the terrain unfamiliar.

Washington and his army, however, were in an awkward position.  With their backs to the Delaware River, the Continentals would face in the morning a determined British Army with superior numbers.  The decision was made to evacuate.  So, overnight, the Continental Army evacuated their positions, leaving four hundred soldiers to keep the bonfires burning and to make loud digging noises.  The British were fooled into thinking the Continentals were digging in for a head-to-head battle in the morning, precisely what Cornwallis wanted.

Using local guides, the Continentals traveled around the British lines, via a little-known path through the woods which we know today as Hamilton Avenue.  By the early morning of January 3rd, 1777, the American Army was traveling close to Princeton along Quaker Road aiming to attack the British rear guard in Princeton.  At the same time a force of about 700 of those British troops, under the command of Lt. Col. Charles Mawhood, was marching south to Trenton to reinforce the British.  The American and British forces met just south of Princeton near Clarke’s farm, and there took place the Battle of Princeton resulting in another decisive victory for the Americans.

In the ten days from Christmas 1776 to January 3rd, 1777, the Continental Army won three decisive victories, instantly transforming morale and public opinion, both here and in Europe.  It was suddenly thought possible that British rule in America could end. The morale of British troops in America nose-dived. British regiments began retiring to bed while remaining dressed in uniform, wondering if this night an attack was coming.  In Britain, it became harder to raise troops, and the whole idea of using mercenary troops came into question.  These victories marked a significant turning point of the war. While the shooting war lasted more than four additional years, these Ten Crucial Days marked the moment when the tide had begun to turn.

[1] The Battles of Trenton and Princeton, William S. Stryker, Houghton, Mifflin and Company, The Riverside Press, Cambridge, 1898, p. 140

Barry Singer

West Windsor, New Jersey

The author is a volunteer with the Historical Society of Princeton, speaking about the American Revolution and leading walking tours in historic Princeton.

250th Anniversary - First Continental Congress

Photograph of Allyn Cox Mural 1973-1974 Great Experiment Hall - Photo Credit – Architect of the Capitol

September 5, 2024 marks the 250th anniversary of the First Continental Congress.  After the French and Indian War (1763), Britain not only forbade the American colonists from expanding westward, but also started imposing taxes to recoup the vast amount spent on their war with France.  Although angered, the colonists retained their strong bonds of affection for England.  The Stamp Act of 1765, taxing printed materials such as legal documents and newspapers, didn’t break those bonds.  The Townsend Revenue Act of 1767, taxing glass, lead, paint, paper and tea, didn’t break those bonds.  Even the Boston Massacre of 1770, resulting in five colonists’ deaths, didn’t do it.  Finally, in 1774, the Intolerable Acts began the process of tearing those bonds apart.

Hoping to get the colonists to accept the taxes, Britain, in 1773, shipped huge amounts of tea to the American colonial ports, setting the price low, but including the hated tax.  Never unloaded in any of the ports, most of the tea was returned to England.  However, when Massachusetts Governor Hutchinson refused to let the tea ships depart for England, the Sons of Liberty took other measures.  On December 16, 1773, disguised as Native Americans, they boarded the tea ships and dumped the hundreds of tea chests overboard, into Boston Harbor.  Britain responded in 1774 with the Intolerable Acts, which ended local self-government in Massachusetts and closed the port of Boston to commerce.  That did it.  The process of breaking those bonds had begun.  Boston was treated like a captured enemy city, with General Thomas Gage and his troops the army of occupation. 

Communicating across the colonies was difficult.  By ordinary post, a Bostonian would receive a local letter in a week.  To receive a letter from Georgia, a Bostonian would have to wait a month.  Despite these difficulties, an assembly of all the colonies, suggested by Virginia, was called, to be held in Philadelphia.  The colonists were anxious, and this common bond was strong.  Massachusetts residents, in the vanguard of a rebellion, feared the other colonies might not rally to their support.  Residents of the other colonies feared their own legislatures could be summarily overturned. 

Still, almost no one wanted a break with England.  Even later, after the signing of the Declaration of Independence in 1776, only about one-third of the colonists wanted to separate from England while two-thirds did not.  Initially, it was made clear that “The conservatives of the middle and southern colonies had no intention of burning their fingers to pull Boston’s chestnuts out of the fire.”[1] By the end of the congressional session, however, this attitude had changed radically.  On October 8th, Congress issued a Resolve providing full throated support for Boston’s opposition to the Intolerable Acts. 

John Adams and the three other Massachusetts delegates took 19 days to arrive in Philadelphia, welcomed by town after town along their route.  In Princeton, he was pleased to meet Dr. John Witherspoon, President of the College of New Jersey (became Princeton University in 1896). Moving to Princeton from Scotland in 1768, Witherspoon remained as president of the college for more than 20 years and was a signer of the Declaration of Independence. Adams described him as: “as high a son of liberty as any in America”.[2]  Adams also saw Witherspoon’s great sense of the value of publicity: “He says it is necessary that the Congress should raise money and employ a number of writers in the newspapers in England, to explain to the public the American plea, and remove the prejudices of the Britons”.[3] 

In Philadelphia, Adams visited Thomas Mifflin’s house and chatted extensively with Charles Thomson. Later, Adams said: “This Charles Thomson is the Sam Adams of Philadelphia, the life of the cause of liberty, they say.”[4] 

Congress held its opening session on September 5, 1774.  In attendance were 19 future signers of the Declaration of Independence and two future Presidents of the United States.  Charles Thomson of Philadelphia was unanimously chosen as the Secretary, a post he would hold until the adoption of the U.S. Constitution in 1789.  His minutes would be the glue that bound the colonies together for the next fourteen years. Although Congress would have seventeen presidents in that time, Thomson would be the only Secretary. 

On the opening day, the delegates set two precedents for the future nation. First, they decided to name the body of delegates “the Congress”, and to call its leader, “the President”.  Secondly, they referred to the future nation itself, as “the United Colonies”, and later “the United States”.  On the second day, Congress set up a committee to state the rights of the colonies in general, the cases in which these rights had been violated, and the best ways to get back those rights.  Setting up this kind of framework was important. It would allow the colonists to react more quickly to future abuses. 

Then, the members had to decide how to apportion the voting power of each colony.  The larger colonies wanted to vote proportionately by population size; the smaller ones wanted equal votes for each colony.  The arguments for each were heated and intense.  The solutions would be complex.  Patrick Henry opened the path to compromise when during the arguments, he rose to state: “We are in a state of nature, sir…The distinctions of Virginians, Pennsylvanians, New Yorkers and New Englanders, are no more.  I am not a Virginian, but an American.”[5]  In the end there was a compromise, although the smaller, less populous colonies won the day, with the decision to allow one vote per colony. 

Approved on October 14th, the Declaration of Rights included 10 resolutions setting forth those American rights, including the statement: “Resolved, That they are entitled to life, liberty and property, and they have never ceded to any foreign power whatever, a right to dispose of either without their consent.”[6]  These words, of course, later found their way into the Declaration of Independence.   The rights themselves included that of petition and assembly, of trial by one’s peers, and of freedom from a standing army in time of peace, except by the consent of the colony’s legislature. 

In a clear indication of the Americans’ continuing affection for England, a petition to the king was prepared, holding him blameless and instead blaming the king’s ministers for these abuses. 

On October 26th the congressional session ended.  There were several important results. First, the adoption of the Articles of Association which would govern the relationship between the colonies going forward.  Its main purpose was to gain redress of the recent grievances. To gain this redress, the colonies agreed to not import from Britain, not export to Britain, and not consume British goods.  A second important result was the formal framework and statement of the rights of Americans.  Finally, they set the date for the next meeting, May 10th, 1775, to be held in the event their grievances were not addressed.  In that session, taking place after the Battles of Lexington and Concord, with war already at hand, Congress turned to directing the defense of the colonies. 

After the session ended, it was only left for Charles Thomson to send the accumulated documents to Benjamin Franklin, who was in London. In his communique, Thomson added: “I hope administration (of Britain) will see and be convinced that it is not a little faction but the whole body of American freeholders from Nova Scotia to Georgia that now complain & apply for redress; and who, I am sure, will resist rather than submit…”.[7] 

Barry Singer, West Windsor, New Jersey

Barry Singer is a volunteer with the Historical Society of Princeton, NJ, speaking about the American Revolution and leading walking tours in historic Princeton

[1] The Reluctant Rebels: The Story of the Continental Congress 1774 – 1789, Lynn Montross, Harper Brothers, 1950, p. 27

[2] Ibid., p. 32

[3] Ibid., p. 32

[4] Ibid., p. 34

[5] Ibid., pg. 41

[6] Ibid., pg. 52

[7] Ibid., p.57

Battle of Bunker Hill

The Death of General Warren by John Trumbull

Battle of Bunker Hill

   June 17th marks the anniversary of the Battle of Bunker Hill, the first battle of the American Revolution fought by the Continental Army from a defensive position against the regular British Army.   Fought in Cambridge, Massachusetts, on June 17, 1775, it was one of the most important of the war.

 PRELUDE                                             

Immediately after the battles of Lexington and Concord, the New England militia swelled to fifteen thousand. They began a siege of Boston.  British General Thomas Gage knew the rebels well. He understood that his 3,000 troops could not stop the rebellion.  Gages’ superiors in London, determined to break the stalemate at Boston, sent General s Howe, Clinton, and Burgoyne, to get aggressive, and crush the rebellion once and for all.

  On the Continental side, William Prescott’s bravery in the Indian Wars had led to an offer from the King’s Royal Army, of a commission which Prescott declined.  Colonel John Stark of New Hampshire, also an experienced Indian fighter, had the unwavering loyalty of his men.  Once captured by the Abenaki tribe while trapping, Stark was eventually adopted by the tribe in recognition of his bravery.  George Washington was not yet in command.  Only on June 15th was George Washington appointed Commander in Chief.

 FORTIFICATIONS

On June 15th it became clear that the British were going to leave Boston and attack.  The militia acted. William Prescott and his men marched into Charleston and occupied the heights at Bunker Hill.  Overnight, they built defensive works at nearby Breeds Hill.   In the morning, the British seeing Breed’s Hill occupied, laid aside their original plans and attacked the next day on June 17, 1775.

  Although the Breed’s Hill fortifications were weak (built overnight), Prescott did two important things.  First, he sent artillery to disrupt the British, along with Captain Thomas Knowlton’s Connecticut men to support them.  Knowlton, another experienced veteran of the Indian wars, saw the weakness in the defensive line. Knowlton ignored his orders.  He immediately took his troops to the weakest point (on the left) where he found a fence used to keep livestock from roaming.  He spread his forces along this fence (now famously known as “the rail fence”), fortifying it further with stones and hay.  

  Prescott’s second action was to send for reinforcements.  Col. John Stark arrived in the afternoon.  Stark spotted another glaring weakness in the defenses, an open gap on the far left of the defensive line at the beach, where the British could walk through and attack the defense works from the left flank.  He immediately plugged this gap by having his troops build a fence of nearby stones thus extending the Militia’s left flank all the way to the beach.  Now a strong defensive line was in place!

                  THE BATTLE – “DON’T FIRE UNTIL YOU SEE THE WHITES OF THEIR EYES”

The left flank was exactly General Howe’s main point of attack.    He was counting on the rebels wasting ammunition by firing too soon (as untrained troops usually did) and then running away at the sight of bayonets, gleaming in the sun, rapidly approaching.

But that was not to be. Both Stark and Knowlton knew how to steady their men.  Stark placed marking sticks on the beach at a distance of 50 yards (within the musket s range of accuracy).  Then, during the attack, they stood behind their men, talking softly, urging them to hold fire until the last possible moment.  Legend has it that during this wait, someone, perhaps Stark or Knowlton, uttered those famous words “don’t fire until you see the whites of their eyes”.

  Well, the fire was resolute and accurate. The militia did not run. Instead, the British light infantry and grenadiers attacking the beach and the rail fence fell like autumn leaves.   General Howe, personally leading the first attack, appeared visibly disturbed by the carnage around him. Howe had no choice but to regroup and attack again (to do less would have been too great a stain on Britain’s and his own military honor).  During this second assault the Continental militia ran out of ammunition.  They retreated, taking most of their casualties during this retreat. 

  AFTERMATH

The British captured the hill although at an exorbitant cost in lives.  Of the 2,300 British soldiers, more than 200 were killed and more than 800 wounded, a casualty rate of over 40%.  Of all the British officers killed in the entire war, almost 25%, or about 100 British officers, were killed here in Cambridge, on this day, at Bunker Hill.  Continental militia casualties were light in comparison:  slightly more than 100 killed, and about 300 wounded.  Most of these casualties occurred during the retreat from the breastworks.

The battle results horrified the British. It became known, in Howe’s own words, as a very costly victory.   Howe had later remarked: “when I look to the consequences of it, in the loss of so many brave officers, I do it with horror. The success is too dearly bought”.

  The following August in Brooklyn, after executing a brilliant flanking maneuver which placed total victory within his grasp, Howe failed to crush the Continental Army. Instead of rapidly proceeding against the Continental fortified positions, he turned cautious, using slower, siege tactics.  This caution provided George Washington and the Continental troops the opportunity to escape from Brooklyn and continue the war. 

Had Howe acted more aggressively, the war might have ended then and there in Brooklyn.  The history we know here in Princeton, which is so important to the founding of our nation, might have been much different.  There might have been no “Ten Crucial Days” and no glorious victories in Trenton and Princeton.  We will never know how much the horror of Bunker Hill weighed on Howe’s mind at that decisive moment in Brooklyn.

 Barry Singer, West Windsor, New Jersey

The author, a volunteer with the Historical Society of Princeton, is a speaker about the American Revolution and conducts walking tours in historic Princeton.

Remembering the Forgotten War

USS Constitution vs HMS Guerriere by Anton Otto Fischer

June 18th marks the 212th anniversary of the War of 1812, the second and last time the United States of America went to war with Great Britain. The connections of the war to Princeton are evident.  First, the President of the United States who signed the war bill on June 18, 1812, was James Madison, who in 1771 graduated from the College of New Jersey (became Princeton University in 1896).  Second, US Navy Commodore William Bainbridge was born in Princeton.  Bainbridge, commander of the USS Constitution, one of the fledgling US Navy’s most durable frigates, captured the HMS Java off the coast of Brazil.  Naval victories such as this helped accelerate the end of the war.

The War of 1812 was fought to safeguard our seaborne commerce and to end the impressment of our seamen by Great Britain.  However, this war has been forgotten, some historians say, because we also had less than noble motives, because we did not win the war, and because we showed amateurishness early on.   For example, since Washington, DC contained no commercial or military goods, few expected an attack there, no meaningful defense was prepared, and the city was largely burned to the ground.

American Ambassador to Britain, James Monroe, protested that thousands of Americans had been impressed into Royal Navy service.  The British, however, had a different view of citizenship.  They did not recognize the right of a British subject to give up his citizenship and become a citizen of another country.  Thus, the impressment of American sailors continued.  It is estimated that between 1793 and 1812, as many as 15,000 sailors had been impressed by British Royal Navy.

  One of the less noble motives of the United States was the desire to annex Canada and thus expel the British completely from North America. This notion led to the misguided, second invasion of Canada by Continental forces.  The previous invasion, in 1775, led to the decisive defeat of the Continental Army at the Battle of Quebec on December 31, 1775.  While some wanted to annex Canada as expansionists, James Monroe clearly expressed a different purpose, which was simply to bring the war to an end.  Monroe said: “it might be necessary to invade Canada, not as an object of the war but as a means to bring it to a satisfactory conclusion.”

  The war was conducted in three theaters: the Great Lakes, at sea, and in the southern states and southwest territories. There were many campaigns, with victories and defeats on both sides. As the US naval ships were no match for the size and depth of the British Royal Navy, some single ship engagements took place. In these encounters, the size and power of the ship itself was the deciding factor. Some notable single ship battles were the USS Constitution vs HMS Guerriere in August 1812 (image shown), and then, in December, the USS Constitution (commanded by William Bainbridge) vs the HMS Java. After a huge cost to both sides over two years, peace negotiations began in Ghent in August 1814.  Finally, the Treaty of Ghent was signed on December 24, 1814, establishing the pre-war status quo.

The War of 1812 is a conflict most are happy to forget.  However, there are some important reasons to remember it, too.  Naval victories, such as Bainbridge’s capture of the HMS Java, helped bring the war to a close sooner. Ironically, and opposite to expectations, the United States, although faring poorly on land, fared well against the British on the high seas (where it was Mistress).    Our victories at sea and on the Great Lakes proved the United States could defend itself on the seas and laid the foundation for the modern US Navy.

William Bainbridge, originally a Princetonian, and commander of the USS Constitution, later settled in Philadelphia where he managed the US Naval shipyards where many US naval vessels were later built.

The saying “Don’t give Up the Ship”, issued by Oliver H. Perry’s flagship during the Battle of Lake Erie, became the motto of the US Navy and has inspired US naval cadets ever since.  The Battle of Baltimore moved Francis Scott Key to write the Star Spangled Banner which by 1931 had become the United States’ national anthem.  Andrew Jackson’s victory at the Battle of New Orleans inspired confidence in our regular army and helped catapult him into the presidency.

Perhaps the most important result was the fledgling United States of America emerging from the war of with a new sense of self confidence, having shown it could defend its recently won freedom.   So as June 18th arrives, we should remember this conflict as an important milestone of America’s heritage of freedom.

Barry Singer

West Windsor, New Jersey

The author is a volunteer with the Historical Society of Princeton, speaking about the American Revolution and leading walking tours in historic Princeton.

50th Anniversary: the last U.S. combat troops depart Vietnam

U.S. POWs celebrate, as the airlift, which becomes known as the Hanoi Taxi, brings them home [U.S. Air Force]

This article first appeared on March 16, 2023  in the New Pelican, a Broward County, Florida newspaper -
www.newpelican.com/articles/50th-anniversary-the-last-u-s-combat-troops-depart-vietnam/

March 29th is the 50th anniversary of when the last U.S. combat troops left Vietnam.  It is a good time to remember it, not for the victory over communism we wanted but were unable to achieve, but for the bravery and the sacrifice of the men and women of U.S. armed forces who engaged in that conflict.

On March 28th, the North Regional/Broward County Library, will host a book discussion (from 2:00 to 3:00 pm) of my new novel, Exit the Bronx: Coming of Age in the Mid 60s During the Vietnam War.

It’s the story of Bob Sievers, a young man from the Bronx.  He is drafted into the U.S. Army at the height of the conflict.  Luckily, he is sent to Heidelberg Germany, where he experiences many life experiences for the first time and grows up.

But, behind all the good experiences for Bob and his friends, the Vietnam war is always in the background. Its events drive their spirits up and down.  They know that at any time, they may be reassigned there to fight.

 In 1949, Mao Zedong proclaimed the birth of the Peoples Republic of China.

 Afterwards, The U.S. government, worried about the spread of communism, developed the “domino theory” to explain why it was better to fight communism in a far-off land, rather than closer to home.  Three U.S. presidents: Eisenhower, Kennedy, and Johnson gradually escalated America’s involvement in the conflict.

 By the autumn of 1966, when Sievers was drafted, more than 500,000 U.S. combat troops were in Vietnam.  Before assignment to Heidelberg, Sievers met some of the returning wounded at the hospital at Fort Gordon, Georgia, where he was stationed. They are the real heroes of the story: the First Air Cavalry Division, the 173rd Airborne Infantry Brigade, and many others, who answered their country’s call with bravery and sacrifice.

In the end, Walter Cronkite said it best. On February 27th, 1968, upon returning from his assessment trip to Vietnam, he said: “It seems now more certain than ever that the bloody experience of Vietnam is to end in a stalemate… It is increasingly clear to this reporter that the only rational way out then will be to negotiate, not as victors, but as an honorable people who lived up to their pledge to defend democracy, and did the best they could.”

In effect, Cronkite had given the American people his permission to end the war.

Then, much later, after the signing of the Paris Peace Accords in January, 1973, the last U.S. combat troops departed Vietnam on March 29.

 Bob Sievers returned to the Bronx after two years, no longer the same person.  He had grown up.  The Bronx had changed.  Actually. it was Bob who had changed.  Seeing the Bronx through new eyes, Bob had to quickly decide where his future lay.

Barry Singer grew up in the Bronx, New York.  He was drafted into the U.S. Army in the mid-1960s, and served in Heidelberg, Germany.

Exit the Bronx is available for purchase at Amazon.com. Available in paperback at $11.99, or as an eBook at $2.99. 

https://www.amazon.com/dp/0578313251/ref=sr_1_1

To learn more about the author, visit:

www.barrysinger.co/authored-works

Exit the Bronx - a novel

We are pleased to announce that “Exit the Bronx”, a novel written by Barry Singer, about coming of age in the mid-1960s during the Vietnam War, has been published, and is available for purchase at Amazon.com.

 Exit the Bronx is the tale of a young man drafted into the U.S. Army during the height of the Vietnam War and the social unrest that swept the globe during the mid-1960s.  Leaving his family for the first time, Bob Sievers, unworldly, is catapulted to Heidelberg Germany.

Among many international adventures, Bob and his friends visit East Berlin by walking across Checkpoint Charlie. There Bob experiences the vast difference between the East and the West.

Returning to the Bronx after all these experiences and new friendships, he is no longer the same person.  Bob then has to quickly decide where his future lies.

To learn more, or to purchase “Exit the Bronx”, clink the link below to the Amazon page.

                https://www.amazon.com/dp/0578313251/ref=sr_1_1

 Barry Singer

West Windsor, New Jersey

February 1, 2022

The Battle of Brooklyn

Us Army - Artillery Retreat from Long Island

 The Battle of Brooklyn, also known as The Battle of Long Island, the largest battle of the entire American Revolutionary War, takes place just 1 ½ months after the signing of the Declaration of Independence, and includes about 37,000 combatants on both sides.  The result is a crushing defeat for the Continental Army.  They fight at the Gowanus Road and Flatbush, and finally at the Continental stronghold at Fort Greene and the other forts at Brooklyn Heights.

 The main battle on August 27, 1776 takes only 9 hours but encompasses about half of the area of today’s Brooklyn.  The British night march through the undefended Jamaica Pass (the furthest of the four passes through the Heights of Guan) encircles and defeats the Continental defenders. Among the many captured Continentals are General John Sullivan and General William Alexander (Lord Stirling).

 After the main battle, George Washington and the Continental Army are trapped at Brooklyn Heights. The American Revolution could have ended there but General Howe’s caution and favorable weather allow George Washington, under the cover of night, to safely evacuate our 9,500 men.

 The story of this fight is the story of inexperience vs experience in battle, mistakes, bad luck, good luck, and eventual salvation.  The British Generals present have an average military experience of more than 30 years while the Continental Generals have an average experience of 2 years.

 Congress wants New York City defended.  John Adams calls the Hudson River “a kind of key to the whole continent” because it goes north to Canada. The British, with control of the Hudson can cut the colonies nearly in two.  This view is not unanimous, however. John Jay proposes burning New York City to the ground and having the Army defend from the safety of the Ramapo mountains.

George Washington then decides to defend three islands (Manhattan, Staten Island and Long Island) against the mightiest naval armada ever assembled in history to that time without having any warships of his own. The East River is one mile wide and the Hudson is two miles wide. This single decision foretells the outcome.

The Continental Army fortifies Brooklyn Heights, the Battery, Governors Island and Fort Washington (in Manhattan opposite today’s Fort Lee NJ), and waits. The fortifications are new, as New York City had never needed fortifications before.  Britain, its long-time defender, had become its enemy.

 By July 12th the bulk of the British armada has arrived. The total force will include 400 ships and 32,000 troops under the overall command of Admiral Richard Howe, General William Howe’s brother. That day the frigates Phoenix and Rose sail up the Hudson River towards the Tappan Zee Bridge.  The Continental batteries fire on them with little effect.  An ominous breach, it spells trouble ahead. If two ships could so easily slip through the defenses, why not twenty or forty ships, turning lower Manhattan and Brooklyn into a trap.

George Washington encounters many difficulties in New York City.

• ·       Lack of an adequate spy network.  Despite the signing of the Declaration of Independence, two thirds of the colonists are “Loyalists” who want to remain with Britain.  The majority of New York residents are Loyalists.

• ·       Management of troops in an urban environment. Many troops became ill with typhus and other “camp fevers”, venereal disease, and drunkenness.

• ·       George Washington dismisses his only cavalry, the 500 strong Connecticut Light Horse.  Concerned about feeding the horses, and not knowing the terrain in Brooklyn, he doesn’t yet know he will want to defend a 10 mile long ridge (Heights of Guan).

On August 22nd, the British land at Graves End Bay, near present day Fort Hamilton with 24,000 troops, staging a precision joint Naval and Army invasion.  While feinting at Gowanus and Flatbush, Generals Howe and Clinton lead the main army on an all-night march through the undefended Jamaica Pass, the furthest of the four passes through the Heights of Guan.

 The British surprise, surround, and defeat the Continental Army on the morning of August 27th, killing many and taking more than 1,000 prisoners.

 Toward the end of the battle, at the Gowanus Road, William Alexander (Lord Stirling), although surrounded, leads the “Maryland 400” in an attack on the overwhelmingly superior British position.  This delaying action allows the bulk of his troops to escape over the marshy Gowanus Canal to the safety of the Brooklyn Heights fortifications. Five times they attack the British and five times they are repulsed with heavy loss of life. At the end, 265 of the Marylanders lay dead at the old stone farm house.

Washington, observing all this from his high ground command post at Cobble Hill, says “Good God! What brave fellows I must this day lose.”[1]

 The rest of the Continental Army along with George Washington are holed up in the Forts at Brooklyn Heights.  Although the British crush the outer defenses along the heights, several pieces of good luck help the Continentals:

1.    The British ships are never able to enter the East River opposite Brooklyn Heights due to a strong wind from the Northeast.  Had the British done so, it is probable the American Revolutionary War would have ended there and then with the capture of George Washington and his army.

2.    On hand is a regiment of Marblehead Massachusetts sailors.  These same sailors 4 months later will ferry George Washington and his army over the Delaware on Christmas 1776.

3.    General Howe does not press the attack on the inner fortifications of Brooklyn Heights.  Howe has many reasons to delay, but that delay may have cost him the Revolution.

·       The troops are fatigued having suffered through an all-night march the night before the battle

·       They have more than 1,000 prisoners

·     The wind could change soon, allowing the navy to enter the East River, giving George Washington no choice but surrender.

·       Howe’s experience at Bunker Hill

At the Battle of Bunker Hill, in June 1775, the British suffered the loss of many men by charging a fortified position.[2]

See my previous article – “The Battle of Bunker Hill”.

Howe had personally led the first charge up the hill and suffered devastating losses. He was seen at one point alone on the hill, surrounded by his dead and wounded soldiers, with a look of horror on his face. He later said that this victory was “too dear bought”. Many historians believe he did not want to repeat this disaster.

 On the night of August 29th, the Continental Army under cover of night, begins the evacuation from Brooklyn heights to Lower Manhattan.  The Marblehead sailors make eleven round trips through swift and dangerous currents and get all 9,500 troops, the horses, the canon and supplies over to Manhattan without a single loss of life.

The British see the empty forts in the morning and are astounded.  Later, military historians see this evacuation to be an extraordinary feat of military maneuver. Incredibly, General Cornwallis, who witnesses George Washington’s night escape first hand, allows the same type of night evacuation in Trenton on January 2nd, 1777.

In another stroke of luck, the wind dies totally that morning preventing the British from immediately following

 Thus ends the Battle of Brooklyn.

One British military critic later said that this evacuation of 9,500 men, horses and equipment without a single loss of life, done at night through treacherous currents, “…should hold a high place among military transactions”[3]

 Importantly, While the British win the battle they do not end the war. 

 The New York Campaign goes from bad to worse for the Continental Army. George Washington finally evacuates his army from New York and retreats through new Jersey to Pennsylvania.

  Although he has lost 90% of his army, he never gives up.

 Out of the ashes of this defeat arises the determination of George Washington and the Continental Army. They persevere through great difficulties ahead and turn the tide only 4 months later. Crossing the Delaware in a Nor’easter on Christmas 1776, they surprise and defeat the Hessians at Trenton, New Jersey.  In ten crucial days the Continental Army wins three battles in Trenton and Princeton (January 3rd 1777), changing the course of history and enabling the birth of our free nation.

Barry Singer

West Windsor, New Jersey

The author, a volunteer with the Historical Society of Princeton, is a speaker about the American Revolution and conducts historic walking tours in Princeton, New Jersey

[1] John J. Gallagher, The Battle of Brooklyn 1776, Da Capo Press, 1995, Pg. 133

[2] See my previous article, “The Battle of Bunker Hill, June 14, 2015

[3] John J. Gallagher, The Battle of Brooklyn 1776, Da Capo Press, 1995, Pg. 153, 154

Arnold's March to Quebec in 1775

Les Chutes Chaudieres, Joseph LeGare around 1840

Two hundred forty two years ago, in the summer of 1775, The Continental Congress, just after appointing George Washington as Commander in Chief, orders Major General Phillip Schuyler to take Canada if he finds doing so “practicable” and not “disagreeable to the Canadians.  After the capture of Fort Ticonderoga in May, Congress invites the 80,000 Canadians (mostly of French origin) in Quebec, to join in opposing the British.  The Canadians are cool to the idea but Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold are hot.  They had just captured fort Ticonderoga in May, virtually without firing a shot, stoking their already large ambitions.

As General Schuyler prepares his troops in Western New York to invade Canada via the easier and more traditionally used approach via Lake Champlain, George Washington assigns Benedict Arnold to lead the right flank, an expedition from Massachusetts through the Maine wilderness to the shore of the St. Lawrence River directly opposite Quebec City.

Benedict Arnold is a 34 year old successful Connecticut merchant filled with military ambitions. After his bold gamble and resulting easy victory at Fort Ticonderoga, this next adventure, the taking of Quebec, would provide even more glory and military honors.  Arnold’s optimism is exceeded only by his ignorance of the terrain of the northeast.  In late September his force of about 1,100 starts up the Kenebec River to traverse the Maine wilderness to Quebec.

Arnold’s painful march to Quebec has become the stuff of legend, including the loss of foodstuffs, portages of 200 heavy boats (bateaux) over great distances.  The boats along with ammunition and supplies weigh 400 pounds each.  While Arnold thinks he will be demanding the surrender of Quebec within 3 weeks from Sir Guy Carlton, the British General serving as Governor, it takes his band 6 weeks just to cross the Maine wilderness, making it to the St. Lawrence River on November 8th.  Out of the 1,100 men who started, about 400 turn back, and about 100 more fall sick or dead on the trip.

On September 19th, Arnold’s force sails from Newburyport to the mouth of the Kenebec River, a distance of about 150 miles.  The river is wider at its mouth, allowing their ships to reach Gardinerstown on September 22nd.  There, the narrowness of the river forces them to switch to small boats (bateaux) or march along on the shore.  Rocks and brush came right to the edge of the river making portage difficult.

“Each bateau was poled upstream by a sweating crew, assisted by lines from soldiers tugging from the difficult banks.  Scouts made their way in advance, sending back reports for the bateaux crews.”[1]

Not until October 11th does the expedition reach The Great Carrying Place, a portage of 12 miles.  Way before then, the boats leak and a great part of the foodstuffs are ruined.  The men fish for trout to replenish their food supply.  Many are exhausted from carrying the heavy boats such a great distance. With many of the foodstuffs ruined, a diet of salt pork and the drinking of stagnant water causes many cases of diarrhea.

From here the trip becomes even harder and more dangerous.  They enter the Dead River, which not only has a strong current against them, but is filled with sunken logs and brush further impeding their progress.  After October 19th a heavy rain falls for three days, overflowing the Dead River’s banks, and making travel still harder.

The wilderness begins taking its toll.  “High winds, freezing temperatures and incessant rains made the passage difficult and rest nearly impossible.  On October 22nd their camp was swamped by water which rose 8 feet in nine hours.”[2]

On October 25th at a council of War, Lt. Colonel Roger Enos’  division of about 300 men votes to turn back.  Arnold lets them go rather than face a mutiny.

Near the end of October, the expedition finishes the 30 miles to reach the Height of Land, the watershed between the Kenebec and Chaudiere Rivers.  By now, snow is falling, many men are sick, and without enough food or clothing.  But they still have to cross Lake Magantic and travel down the Chaudiere River to the St Lawrence.

“Finally, they reached the Chaudiere.   But they were now completely out of food and survived only by eating moccasins, shot pouches, and soap.”[3]

At last, on November 8th, this exhausted band of travelers reaches the St Lawrence River on the shore opposite Quebec City.  By this time, however, they are in no condition to fight and the actual battle, which takes place on December 31st, results in a devastating loss for the Americans.   It is amazing that Arnold's men arrive at all, and thus this “little excursion” passes into history as one of the 18th Century’s most difficult and remarkable military expeditions.

Barry Singer

West Windsor, New Jersey

The author, a volunteer with the Historical Society of Princeton, is a speaker about the American Revolution and conducts historic walking tours in Princeton.

[1] For a fuller discussion of the march: Barry M. Gough, Arnold’s March to Quebec in 1775, From an Address Given to the United Empire Loyalists, Grand River Branch, Waterloo, Ontario, November, 1975

[2] Ibid.

[3] For a further details of the expedition and map: Craig L. Symonds, A Battlefield Atlas of the American Revolution, The Nautical & Aviation Publishing Company of America, 1986, 23

Princeton and The American Revolution - A Five Lecture Series Offered by OLLI - RU

We are pleased to announce that “Princeton and the American Revolution”, a five lecture series is being offered at OLLI – RU (Osher Lifelong Learning Institute at Rutgers) starting April 14th 2016.

Registration begins Tuesday, February 9th.

In the 240th anniversary of the glorious year of 1776 this lecture series explores this exciting and pivotal period in the birth of the USA.  We discuss Princeton before the revolution, the war itself up to and including the battle of Princeton, and Princeton’s role as the nation’s capital for 4 ½ months in 1783.  Discussions will cover some of the battles in depth, include soldiers’ diary entries, and many visuals of Princeton

For further information or to register for this course, visit the OLLI – RU web site:

https://ce-catalog.rutgers.edu/courseDisplay.cfm?schID=60642

We also do American Revolutionary War speaking engagements and walking tours of Princeton’s revolutionary war sites.   For further information or to contact Barry directly, please visit:

www.barrysinger.co/talks

 Barry Singer

West Windsor, New Jersey

February  3, 2016

Top 5 American Revolutionary War Speakers in New Jersey

Excitement was in the air.  It was the beginning of last year’s annual celebration of Patriots week in Princeton and Trenton.  I attended as many events as I could but if you are a die-hard Revolutionary war fan, it is never enough.  As the events included many wonderful talks, I wanted to mention those whom I felt were the top 5 Revolutionary War speakers, although many others added luster to the week’s events.   

Sponsored by the Trenton Downtown Association, Patriots Week consists of a large number of events including reenactments, talks by noted speakers, as well as guided tours of the Trenton battlefields.   Hundreds of re enactors came from all across America to depict for us the historic events that actually took place right here, in downtown Trenton.  The battles provided the Continental Army’s first victories, became the turning point of the war, and led to victory and the birth of our free nation.

All In all it was an American Revolutionary War fan’s delight. 

At the week’s opening, I attended a wonderful talk at the Princeton Library by author Thomas Fleming.  A noted historian, he has written many books on the Revolutionary War period.  This talk was sponsored by the Princeton Battlefield Society.

I witnessed a reenactment of the 2nd Battle of Trenton right before my eyes.   50 to 100 men in colonial uniform crossed the new metallic bridge (very near to the famous “old stone bridge” where the battle actually took place).  The soldiers fired their muskets and the cannon roared.  The re enactors gave it their all, even allowing their spotless uniforms to get muddied as they “fell” in battle.

I attended the end of the luncheon for the re enactors, and got to hear a fantastic talk by author Larry Kidder: “A people Harassed and Exhausted “, the story of a New Jersey militia Regiment.

Finally I took an excellent walking tour of the Battle of Trenton with noted interpretive guide Ralph Siegel.  It was a bit cold that day, but Mr. Siegel’s dynamic commentary made up for it, as he showed us the actual sites where the fight took place.

Other noted speakers performing during the week included Peter Osborne who talked about Washington’s Crossing, and B. David Emerson who gave a talk as George Washington.

There were many more events each day, turning downtown Trenton, for one week, into an American Revolutionary village.  Anyone who has an interest in the heritage of freedom in America should not miss this year’s events which have now been scheduled.

For further information be sure to visit:

Trenton Downtown Association’s Patriot Week web site:

 http://www.destinationtrenton.com/events/patriots-week/

And be sure to visit the Historical Society of Princeton’s website to watch for Patriot Week events:

www.Princetonhistory.org

AT BARRY SINGER HISTORY ADVENTURES, we also do American Revolutionary War speaking engagements and walking tours of Princeton’s revolutionary war sites.   For further information or to book a talk please visit:

www.barrysinger.co/talks

Barry Singer, West Windsor, New Jersey

December 1, 2015

240th Anniversary - King George Declares the American Colonies in Rebellion

The American Colonies are in open rebellion declared King George to Parliament in the fall of 1775.

The king’s address to Parliament on October 26th would have far reaching consequences, hardening positions on both sides, allowing the British to stir up public opinion in favor of a war, hire mercenaries and in general put forth every effort to bring the Colonies to heel.

The Battle of Bunker Hill on June 17th, 1775, a brutal fight, showed that the rag tag rebels could stand and fight.  More than 25% of all the British Officers killed in the 7 years of fighting were killed there, that day.  Ironically, the colonial victory at Bunker Hill would haunt George Washington (who would not take command until July) for many years.  Because a seemingly untrained militia could defeat British regulars in a conventional battle, Congress would drag its feet in creating a professional army, always afraid of a military coup.  The reality at Bunker Hill was that a couple of commanders, John Stark of New Hampshire and Thomas Knowlton of Connecticut, were battle-hardened veterans of the French and Indian War.   They were able to steady their troops and lead them in the most professional way.  By placing marking sticks at a distance of 50 yards (the musket’s most deadly effective range) and standing close by, they forced their men to wait until the last moment to fire causing enormous casualties among the British. From these tactics emerged legendary quote:  “Don’t fire til you see the whites of their eyes”.

Now, with blood spilled, first at Lexington and Concord in April, and then at Bunker hill in June,  in a huge embarrassment for the British, the King had assured Lord North, the Prime Minister,  that all means would be used to subdue the Colonies.  With this assurance, Lord North had been negotiating with several German Princes to hire an army of mercenaries to bolster the British forces.

In his Parliamentary address in October, King George denounced the colonial leaders for entering into a conspiracy to begin a rebellion ultimately aimed at establishing an independent empire.  The King refused to allow Britain to: “give up so many colonies which she has planted with great industry, nursed with great tenderness, encouraged with many commercial advantages, and protected and defended at much expense of blood and treasure”. [1]

Despite the King’s words, since the conclusion of the Seven Years War in 1763, Britain, with a crushing debt of 129 million pounds sterling, had done everything to increase taxes of the American colonies to extract a significant part of the war expenses.  Yet throughout this 12 year period of harsh and ever increasing taxation, the colonists responded modestly, always asserting only the rights of free Englishmen, never pursuing a separation from Britain.

In 1764 taxes were imposed on sugar, wine, coffee and other imports and exports.  The currency act abolished Colonial paper currency that had sprung up, diminishing the Colonies’ ability to trade.

In 1765 the Stamp Act enacted a tax on 55 kinds of legal documents.

Because of these onerous taxes, the Virginia Legislature met in 1765 and passed the Virginia Stamp Act Resolutions.  Amazingly these resolutions never mentioned separation from Britain, but simply asserted the colonists’ rights as free Englishmen.  Independence from Britain was not on the agenda.  On the contrary there still was affection and good will toward the mother country.

Then things got progressively worse.  Taxes were levied on glass, paint, oil lead, paper.  A tax on tea led to the Boston Tea Party in 1773.  Yet despite all these “taxes without representation”, the First Continental Congress, which met in Philadelphia in 1774, from September 5th to October 26th, contrary to the wishes of its more radical members, did not urge a separation from England.  In its Declaration and Resolves, it again called for the Colonies to be allowed only the rights of free Englishmen, urging a fuller communication of grievances to England, the population of the American Colonies, and the rest of the world.

The October 1775 war debate in Parliament was not one sided, however.  Many legislators sided with the Colonists and spoke eloquently.  John Wilkes, Lord Mayor of London argued against war, declaring it unjust and ruinous to England: “We are fighting for the subjection, the unconditional submission of a country infinitely more extended than our own, of which every day increases the wealth, the natural strength, the population.”[2]

Despite the expression of such views, at the end of the debate, the skillful Lord North had accomplished the King’s mission of having the Parliament approve a vigorous war to gain the Colonies’ submission.  In both the House of Lords and the Commons, the vote for war was more than 2 to 1.

King George’s declaration in October 1775 that the colonists “were in rebellion” and were conspiring to create an empire separate from Great Britain, pushed the toboggan of war faster downhill, and was an important driver of the actual rush to Independence.  On hearing the news of the King’s proclamation and the action of Parliament, the Colonists began to think that separation from the mother country was inevitable.  Further fueled by Thomas Paine’s pamphlet, “Common Sense” , published in January 1776, the drive to separation culminated only six months later in the Declaration of Independence.

Barry Singer

West Windsor, New Jersey

November 10, 2015

[1] For a fuller description David McCullough, 1776, Simon and Schuster Paperbacks, 2006, 10 - 19

[2] Ibid., 15

240th Anniversary of the Battle of Bunker Hill

The 240th Anniversary of the Battle of Bunker Hill

June 14, 2015

June 17th marks the 240th anniversary of the Battle of Bunker Hill, the first battle of the American Revolution fought from a defensive position against the regular British Army.   This battle, fought in Cambridge, Massachusetts, was one of the most important of the war, and one which had far reaching consequences even for a town as far away as Princeton, New Jersey.

PRELUDE

After the battles of Lexington and Concord, the New England militia swelled to about 15 thousand strong, and laid siege to the town of Boston which had three thousand British troops commanded by General Thomas Gage.  Gage knew the rebels and understood that his small number of troops could not put down the rebellion.  His rightly held belief that the rebels knew how to fight (Gage had participated with some of them in the Indian Wars) led to a stalemate.

 William Prescott’s bravery in the Indian Wars had led to an offer of a commission in the King’s royal army, which he had declined.  Further. Colonel John Stark of New Hampshire was also an experienced Indian fighter who had the unwavering loyalty of his men.  Once captured by the Abenaki tribe while trapping, Stark was eventually adopted by that tribe in recognition of his bravery.

The New England militia, led by General Artemas Ward, was also reluctant to fight alone. They could not fight a war on behalf of all the colonies without help. The 2nd Continental Congress, meeting in Philadelphia, only started in early June the process of coordinating the colonies’ military efforts and it wasn’t until June 15th that George Washington was appointed Commander in Chief of the “Continental Army”.

Gages’ superiors in London did not believe his assessment however, and, determined to break the stalemate,  sent General s Howe, Clinton and Burgoyne to change to an aggressive posture and  put down the rebellion once and for all.

FORTIFICATIONS

When on June 15th it became clear that the British were going to march out from Boston, and place the militia camps in jeopardy, the militia acted.  A group under William Prescott marched into Charleston and occupied the heights at Bunker Hill, building a defensive works at a nearby Hill known as Breeds Hill.  Breeds hill was a less defensible position, but closer to the British. The fortifications were built in the dark of night, and It is unknown whether they mistakenly occupied the wrong hill, or they decided to taunt the British into action by occupying the closer hill.

The British, seeing Breed’s Hill occupied, laid aside their original plans and attacked the next day on June 17, 1775.

Although the Breed’s Hill fortifications were weak (they were built in the dark of night), Prescott did two important things.  First he sent some artillery to disrupt the British, along with Captain Thomas Knowlton’s Connecticut men to support them. Knowlton, another experienced commander of the Indian wars, seeing the weakness in the defensive line, ignored the artillery and immediately  took his troops to the weakest part  (on the left ) where he found a fence that farmers had used to keep  their livestock from roaming.  He spread his forces along this fence (now famously known as “the rail fence”) and fortified it further with stones and hay.  

Prescott’s second action was to send back to Cambridge for reinforcements.  These reinforcements were commanded by Col John Stark of New Hampshire, another experienced veteran.  When Stark arrived in the afternoon he noticed another glaring weakness in the defenses, an open gap on the far left of the defensive line at the beach, where the British could walk through and attack the defense works from the left flank.  Stark immediately plugged this gap by having his troops build a fence of nearby stones thus extending the Militia’s left flank all the way to the beach. 

Now a strong defensive line was in place.

            THE BATTLE – “DON’T FIRE UNTIL YOU SEE THE WHITES OF THEIR EYES”

It turned out that the left flank was exactly Howe’s main point of attack.  It was a classic European maneuver to feint at the center and attack the flank.  General Howe was counting on the rebels wasting their ammunition by firing too soon (as untrained troops usually did) and then running away at the sight of bayonets, gleaming in the sun, coming near. 

But both Stark and Knowlton knew how to steady their men.  Stark placed marking sticks on the beach at a distance of 50 yards (within the musket s range of accuracy).  Then during the attack, they stood behind their men talking softly, urging them to hold fire until the last possible moment.  Legend has it that during this wait, someone, perhaps Stark or Knowlton, uttered those famous words “don’t fire until you see the whites of their eyes”.

Well the fire was resolute and accurate and the militia did not run away as expected. Instead, the British light infantry and grenadiers attacking the beach and the rail fence fell like autumn leaves.   General Howe, leading the attack personally,  appeared visibly disturbed by the carnage around him. With little choice but to regroup and attack again (to do less would have been too great a stain on Britain’s and Howe’s military honor), Howe marshaled his forces for a second assault.  During this second assault the militia finally ran out of ammunition and retreated, taking most of their casualties during this retreat. [1]

AFTERMATH

Thus the British captured the hill although at an exorbitant cost in lives.  Of the 2,300 or so British soldiers, more than 200 officers and men were killed and more than 800 were wounded, a casualty rate of over 40%.  Of all the British officers killed in the entire war, almost 25% were killed here in Cambridge, at Bunker Hill. 

The militia casualties were light in comparison:  slightly more than 100 killed, and about 300 wounded.  The majority of these casualties occurred during the retreat from the breastworks.

The results of the battle were horrifying to the British and it became known in Howe’s own words as a dear bought victory.   Howe had later remarked “when I look to the consequences of it, in the loss of so many brave officers, I do it with horror. The success is too dearly bought”. 

The following August in Brooklyn, after Howe had executed a brilliant flanking maneuver and had total victory in his grasp, he failed to capitalize on it and crush the Continental Army at Brooklyn Heights. Instead of rapidly proceeding against the remaining continental forces in their fortified positions, he turned cautious and decided to use slower, siege tactics, thus providing George Washington the opportunity to escape and continue the war. 

Had Howe acted aggressively, the war might have ended then and there in Brooklyn.  The history we know and which is so important to the founding of our nation might have been much different.  There might have been no “10 crucial days” and no glorious victories in Trenton and Princeton.  We will never know how much the horror of Bunker Hill weighed on Howe’s mind at that decisive moment in Brooklyn.

[1] For a thorough description of the battle: Paul Lockhart, The Whites of Their Eyes, Harper Collins, 2011, 268 - 304

10 Crucial Days to Liberty

As we celebrate the 350th anniversary of New Jersey this year, it’s a good time to reflect on the 10 Crucial Days that unfolded right here in Princeton and Trenton from December 25th 1776 to January 3rd, 1777. These few days marked the turning point in the American Revolution, and played a large role in securing our liberty.

Much of 1776 was a dismal year for those Americans wanting freedom from British rule:

• A disastrous defeat in Brooklyn would have ended the revolution then and there but for the providence of wind and fog which allowed George Washington’s army to escape the most massive British naval force ever deployed to that time.
• A disheartening retreat through New Jersey, with the British army under General Cornwallis following closely, saved the army from destruction.
• However, spirits were low and so was public opinion so necessary to support the army.

By December 1st   the Continental army arrived in Princeton on its way to Trenton and across the Delaware.  Princeton, a hotbed of patriotic fervor, then became a ghost town .   On November 29th, John Witherspoon, President of the College of New Jersey (as Princeton University was known) closed the school and sent the students home.   When the British arrived in Princeton on December 7th they took over Nassau Hall as a barracks and converted the basement into a dungeon.  Morven was later taken as the headquarters for General Cornwallis.

By Christmas the Continental Army was in dire straits: food, ammunition and winter clothing were lacking.  Many of the enlistments were to expire December 31st and most of the citizen soldiers had resolved to go home .  Finally, public support for the Revolution was at a low, and the value of the Continental currency was sinking fast.  A victory was urgently needed.

On December 25th George Washington took a desperate gamble.  His army crossed the Delaware and surprise attacked the Hessian garrison at Trenton. 

They crossed the Delaware at McConkey’s and Johnson’s Ferries about 10 miles North of Trenton just as a Nor’easter was gathering strength and despite extraordinary ice blockages on the river.  Traveling south to Trenton, lugging cannon across Jacob’s Creek, the army attacked the Hessians from the north, emerging from the teeth of the raging Nor’easter.  The victory was overwhelming.

The British then amassed an 8,000 man army at Princeton and drove southward to Trenton.  On January 2nd 1777, entrenched in positions just south of Trenton behind the Assunpink Creek, the Continental army held off 3 British attacks in the twilight hours.  The British suffered many casualties as a result of the sharpshooting ability of the American backwoods riflemen in the army.

Sensing the British were to encircle them in the morning, the Continental army evacuated their positions overnight, leaving bonfires burning to make the British believe they remained.

By the morning of January 3rd 1777 the American army was traveling close to Princeton along Quaker Road toward their main attack point at Nassau Hall.  At the same time a force of about 700 British troops under the command of Lt. Col Mawhood was marching south to Trenton to reinforce the army of General Cornwallis.

The American and British forces met just outside Princeton near Clarke’s farm and there took place the Battle of Princeton resulting in another decisive victory for the American army.

In the 10 days from Christmas 1776 to January 3rd 1777 the American army had won 3 decisive victories.

Morale here, and public opinion both here and in Europe, were transformed.  Suddenly it was possible that British rule here could be ended.

All New Jerseyans as well all Americans can be highly proud of the events that took place here in these 10 Crucial Days, and how our forebears persisted through unimaginable difficulties to victory and freedom.

Remembering the Forgotten War

June 18th marks the 200th anniversary of the War of 1812 which was the second and last time the United States of America went to war with Great Britain.

Although the War of 1812 was fought to safeguard our seaborne commerce and to end the impressment of our seamen by Great Britain, this war is forgotten, some historians say, because  we also had less noble motives such as annexing Canada, because  we did not win the war, and because we showed amateurishness early on.   For example, since Washington, DC contained no commercial or military goods few expected an attack, no meaningful defense was prepared, and the city was largely burned to the ground.

 However, there are important reasons to remember and celebrate this conflict.

 The connections of the war to Princeton are evident.  First, the President of the United States who signed the war bill on June 18, 1812 was James Madison, who in 1771 graduated from the College of New Jersey (became Princeton University in 1896).  Second, US Navy Commodore William Bainbridge was born in Princeton.  Bainbridge, commander of the USS Constitution, one of the fledgling US Navy’s most durable frigates, captured the HMS Java off the coast of Brazil.  Naval victories such as this one helped accelerate the end of the war.  Ironically, and opposite to expectations, the United States, although faring poorly on land, humbled the British on the high seas (where it was Mistress).  William Bainbridge was born May 7, 1774 in the house that now bears his name at 158 Nassau Street.   Of course this house is now one of the two homes of the Historical Society of Princeton, the other being the Updike Farmstead at 354 Quaker Road.

Despite the war’s shortcomings in terms of national pride and honor, there are a number of results to celebrate and remember today, including the following examples.   Our victories at sea and on the great lakes proved the United States could defend itself on the seas, and laid the foundation for the modern US Navy.  The saying “Don’t give Up the Ship”, used by Oliver H. Perry’s flagship during the Battle of Lake Erie, became the motto of the US Navy and has influenced US naval cadets ever since.  The Battle of Baltimore inspired Francis Scott Key to write the Star Spangled Banner which by 1931 had become our national anthem.  The victory at the battle of New Orleans inspired confidence in our regular army and helped catapult Andrew Jackson into the presidency.

Perhaps the most important result was the emergence from the war of the fledgling United States of America with a new sense of self confidence having shown we could defend our recently won freedom.   So as June 18th arrives we should celebrate this bicentennial as an important milestone of the incredible journey of the United States of America.